The study of elder mistreatment is a fairly recent area of scholarship in the United States. First discussed in the 1970’s, abuse of older adults was for many years a largely hidden, private matter rather than an issue of social, health, or criminal concern.
Research efforts began slowly as state laws recognizing the offense were enacted and public awareness rose. While a research base has been steadily growing, the subject matter is still largely understudied and there remains a critical deficit in the development of robust studies. Notably, elder abuse research and funding lag behind efforts in the comparable and related disciplines of child abuse and intimate partner violence. Further studies are vital to identify the scope of the problem, explore areas of need, and to validate evidence-informed, best practice strategies to address elder abuse prevention, detection, treatment, and remediation.
Theories are essential to explain the complex causes, risk factors, inter-relational dynamics, and consequences of elder mistreatment.
They frame the way research is conducted, collected, and analyzed and inform identification of patterns, themes, and tendencies that influence appropriate strategies for intervention. In addition to improving practice measures to prevent and detect abuse, theory is critical to the development of policies that advance the education of practitioners and knowledge in the field.
Early theoretical models have been critiqued for several reasons, including their limited scope, discipline-specific focus, and failure to consider cultural implications.
While there is no current theoretical consensus, a number of approaches have emerged that lend insight to the area, including the ecological model,
and stress process theory.
The statistics and data below provide information about the growing older adult population, definitions of abuse, the incidence and prevalence of mistreatment, and risk and protective factors for mistreatment, among other key topic areas. The research-based findings are sourced to peer-reviewed publications, articles, and relevant government agency data. Please note that the information referenced is based upon a variety of studies, each reflecting the author’s respective orientation, the type of research conducted, methods employed, measures evaluated, study-specific operational definitions, and contextually related data sets.
As of 2018 there were 52.4 million adults 65 and over in the United States.
, comprising nearly 21% of the total population.
People aged 85 and older are predicted to almost triple from their current 6.7 million to 19 million by 2060.
For the first time, in 2034, it is anticipated that older Americans will outnumber children.
Declining rates of fertility and the aging of the baby boom generation are believed to contribute to the increasing ranks of older adults nationwide.
To provide context, incidence and prevalence rates of mistreatment are informed by the core definitions, inclusion criteria, theoretical basis, and methodology utilized by respective researchers to guide the collection of data.
As a result, prevalence estimates of abuse, as reflected in recent studies, are variable.
Though there is increasing consensus on the core components of elder mistreatment, the field has not adopted a universally accepted definition of abuse.
Several reasons have been suggested for the lack of uniformity. Different professional disciplines, each with their own objectives, interests, and perspectives may use distinct approaches to classify elder abuse.
Conceptual understandings may also vary based on differing cultural and social norms among communities. Socio-cultural orientations may derive from numerous factors including faith, family, circumstances, context, and community, resulting in diverse descriptions and perceptions of, and responses to, mistreatment. Notably, in the United States legal definitions of abuse vary by state statute. Internationally, definitional variability is observed both between and within countries.
A lack of consistency in definitions and data elements on elder mistreatment across jurisdictions makes it challenging for researchers to measure elder mistreatment and identify trends.
Notwithstanding deficits in classification, the following definitions are commonly cited by researchers in their studies on elder mistreatment.
Elder mistreatment typically takes one of five forms: physical abuse, psychological or emotional abuse, sexual abuse, financial abuse, and neglect.
As with the broader definition of elder mistreatment, understandings of specific types of maltreatment may vary. They are often impacted and informed by socio-cultural orientations and may be differently construed by diverse constituencies and individuals.
: the intentional or reckless use of physical force or physical coercion that may result in bodily injury, physical pain, or impairment. Acts of physical violence include, but are not limited to, hitting, beating, pushing, shoving, shaking, slapping, kicking, pinching, and burning. Physical abuse also embraces any unlawful, excessive, or unnecessary use of physical or chemical means to restrain or confine an elder, such as force-feeding and physical punishment.
: non-consensual sexual contact of any kind with an older adult, perpetrated through force, threats, or the exploitation of authority. Sexual abuse includes, but is not limited to, unwanted touching, sexual assault or battery, sexual harassment, and sexual interaction with elders who lack the capacity to give consent.
: the infliction of anguish, pain, or distress through verbal or nonverbal acts including, but not limited to verbal assaults, insults, threats, intimidation, humiliation, isolation, and harassment.
: the illegal or improper use of an elder's funds, property, or assets including, but not limited to misusing or stealing an older person's money or possessions, coercing or deceiving an older person into signing any document (e.g., contracts or will), and the improper use of conservatorship, guardianship, or power of attorney.
: the refusal or failure to fulfill any part of a person's obligations or duties of care to an elder which include, but are not limited to, life necessities such as food, water, clothing, shelter, personal hygiene, medicine, comfort, and personal safety.
is a phenomenon related to but distinct from elder neglect.
Self-neglect is a form of self-harm that may co-occur with, provoke, or be triggered by elder mistreatment. It is characterized as the behavior of an older person that threatens their own health or safety, including but not limited to the refusal or failure to provide themselves with life necessities.
is oftentimes considered a subtype of neglect and other times believed to constitute a separate category of mistreatment.
By definition, it is the desertion of an older adult by an individual who has physical custody of an elder, or who has assumed responsibility for providing care for that elder.
The most frequently observed signs of mistreatment are referenced below. Please note that indicia of abuse may present differently based upon multiple factors, including the type, degree, duration, and context of abuse experienced.
Manifestations of abuse may also be impacted by the older adult’s physical and cognitive condition, social connectedness, and emotional state.
Older residents of long-term care facilities who have disabilities or otherwise experience frailties may be at heightened risk of mistreatment and less able to safeguard themselves from environmental harm or extricate themselves from danger.
Abuse within institutions may be observed in the forms outlined above but may also be discerned in other ways. For example, physical abuse may appear as hygiene neglect, which results in skin abrasions and breakdown such as pressure ulcers. Other means of institutional abuse are medication withholding, food deprivation, treatment neglect, and chemical restraints. Psychological mistreatment may be also employed and expressed as threats of death or harm.
Like the signs of abuse, the impact of elder mistreatment may be experienced differently by older adults. The effects of maltreatment are often related to the scope, nature, type, and degree of abuse. They are also influenced by the many multifactorial, intersecting medical, mental health, and socio-cultural components that comprise the elder’s life. Contextual factors, including a prior history of trauma, may also play a role in determining the impacts perceived and manifested by the individual who was abused. For elders who live with several types of abuse, the reactions may be overlapping and complex.
Among the devastating effects of abuse, older adults may sustain physical injuries, psychological harms, and financial losses. Traumas may lead to compromised health, hospitalization, and mortality. Elders may also experience deteriorated family relationships, diminished autonomy, and institutionalization, which may result in a diminished quality of life.
Below is a partial, representative list of abuse-related consequences by type of mistreatment experienced.
Recognizing the factors associated with the increased risk of elder mistreatment is critical to help us understand the sources and causes of abuse, neglect, and exploitation. It is important to note at the outset that elder abuse is a complicated phenomenon, often rooted in the qualities of the elder and the perpetrator within the context of their interconnected relationship.
Research studies have discerned both victim and perpetrator characteristics that offer insight as to why certain older people may be susceptible to and targeted for mistreatment, and the reasons offenders may be more likely to commit acts of mistreatment. One study reported that offender traits may be a stronger predictor of abuse than victim features.
Knowledge of the discrete and interrelated factors may inform efforts to mitigate the risk of elder abuse, manage environmental threats, and prevent recurrent abuse.
Risk factors can be characterized as “static” or “dynamic.” Static variables are those elements in an individual’s world that are fixed and unlikely to change, such as historical violence or criminality. Dynamic variables, on the other hand, are those factors which may be modified through risk management strategies and tailored interventions.
This could include perpetrator substance abuse which may be controlled through treatment, medication, and/or court ordered protections.
Below are examples of risk factors commonly observed with victims and perpetrators. Because of the significance and interrelationship of abuse within the larger societal framework, the impact of socio-cultural risk factors will be addressed below as well.
Other victim-centric variables that have been correlated with a potential increased risk of abuse include the following:
Causal factors that forecast the initial onset of abuse are relevant to revictimization. Additional considerations have been identified that create or contribute to an increased risk of recurrence. These perpetuating factors include an older adult’s perception of the mistreatment, the degree to which they protect or defend the offender, the receptiveness to help, barriers to accessing supportive services, and the extent of influence imposed by the perpetrator to quash an older adult’s help-seeking behavior.
Community contexts and societal perceptions have been cited as possible predictors of elder abuse. Some studies have reported that living in urban centers may increase the likelihood of mistreatment. Others have noted that age bias and stereotypes about older people contribute to elder mistreatment. As public discourse and depictions portray elders as inept, fragile, or burdensome, audiences may begin to accept ageist misconceptions as fact and tolerate, even perpetuate, the adverse treatment of older adults.
There is scant evidentiary support for protective factors which may safeguard older adults from mistreatment.
Two factors, however, have been cited as effective means to shield elders from harm. High levels of social support and embedded community networks have been found to offer protection to ward off abuse. The other suggested supportive measure relates to the elder’s living environment. Empirical studies have found that shared living situations may accelerate the risk of abuse. Separation from conflict may serve to mitigate environmental stress which can foster mistreatment.
For additional information on interventions, please see the section on Interventions, below.
Perpetrators of elder mistreatment share some common characteristics but are largely heterogeneous with significant variability across types of abuse. Greater insight into these differences in typology may serve to inform appropriate interventions and remediation. Below are general offender patterns extrapolated from research. An Abuser Risk Measure has been developed to measure the risk of abuse by perpetrators.
One study differentiated perpetrators by personality and behavioral attributes. Four discrete profiles were identified: “Caregiver,” “Temperamental,” “Dependent Caregiver,” and “Dangerous.” Given the heterogeneity among offenders, researchers suggested that interventions be tailored by typology to effectively address the mistreatment and mitigate harm.
Poly-victimization is the intersection of multiple co-occurring or sequential forms of abuse which result in cumulative and compounding harms for older adults. The concept of poly-victimization recognizes that past traumas over the life course can heighten the negative impact of mistreatment in older age. Early childhood adversity, both experiencing and witnessing mistreatment, can also exacerbate later life abuse.
One study reported that approximately 1.7% of older people experienced prior year poly-victimization.
Ageism is the systematic stereotyping and discrimination of people based upon their age. Often overlooked and significantly understudied, age prejudice is observed on a societal and personal level.
With a biased lens, older people are perceived as an undifferentiated group with negative traits, among them forgetful, inept, ailing, and irritable.
These blanket misperceptions tend to devalue individual aptitudes and disregard diversity within the older cohort. They also contribute to adverse physical and mental health correlates.
One systematic review and meta-analysis of the literature found that interventions such as education and intergenerational contact may reduce stereotyping and the effects of age bias.
Another study demonstrated that exposure to a brief framing intervention was able to reduce implicit bias against older adults.
Older people with dementia are particularly susceptible to abuse. Nearly one in two older adults with cognitive impairment experiences abuse.
In addition to being dependent upon others for assistance, elders with dementia are more likely to experience deficits in memory, communication, and judgment that make it harder for them to identify, prevent, and report mistreatment. Many may also be reluctant to report abuse by caregivers and others upon whom they rely. Older people with dementia are often at an increased risk of mistreatment because of pre-existing medical and mental health weaknesses.
Guardianship is a relationship created by state law in which a court gives one person or entity (the guardian) the duty and power to make personal and/or property decisions for another whom the court has found unable to make such decisions. Terms vary by state, but frequently a “guardian” makes personal and health care decisions, and a “conservator” makes financial decisions. In this summary, the generic term “guardianship” refers to both, unless otherwise indicated.
Guardians are appointed by the court to protect an at-risk individual, and often to prevent or address abuse. While many guardians act in the individual’s best interest, an unknown number take advantage of those they were named to protect -- making guardianship both a solution to and a source of elder abuse.
the extent of guardianship abuse is unknown, as data is scant to nonexistent. Courts need data to monitor guardianship practice, and policymakers need data to target necessary improvements.
Most states lack even basic information on the number of adults subject to guardianship. Given insufficient state data, national figures have been estimates at best. In 1987, the Associated Press referenced “300,000 to 400,000 elderly people” under guardianship.
In 2011, researcher from the National Center for State Courts (NCSC) calculated there may be 1.5 million adults subject to guardianship across the country,
and in 2016, estimated 1.3 million open cases.
There are significant challenges in collecting consistent court data, for example:
Recent recommendations and resources have recognized and begun to address the compelling need for adult guardianship data:
Elder abuse occurs across racial, ethnic, gender, and sexual domains. Though there are a paucity of studies assessing elder abuse in diverse communities, emerging research reflects that perceptions of mistreatment are often culturally construed and contextually determined. These differences impact how mistreatment is defined, described, and addressed among and even within communities.
Understanding how diverse communities conceptualize abuse and neglect is essential to developing culturally relevant adult protections and abuse interventions.
Elder abuse can precipitate, result from, or co-exist with other forms of violence. It can also be causally connected to other traumas. The following are topic areas that address the intersectionality of elder mistreatment and related phenomena.
At its core, elder mistreatment is a multidimensional issue which invokes many different disciplines and practice areas. These include medicine, psychology, social work, law, and gerontology to name a few. Various professions address elder abuse identification, reporting, and intervention through the lens of their respective domains. Below is a list of some practice areas and their responses to elder abuse, with articles cited for reference.
Elder abuse is recognized globally as a significant public health problem impacting older adults worldwide.
International bodies from the World Health Organization to the United Nations and the International Network for the Prevention of Elder Abuse, among other agencies, have noted the individual and societal harms caused by elder mistreatment. Each year, the United States and countries around the world commemorate World Elder Abuse Awareness Day (WEAAD) to promote understanding and awareness of the abuse and neglect of older persons.
Research studies have been undertaken to describe, evaluate, and address elder mistreatment across the globe. Below are a sampling of recent articles discussing abuse in various countries.
Several screening tools have been developed to aid providers in the detection of abuse. These instruments are typically comprised of questions intended to assess for potential or presenting mistreatment. In a preliminary screening, positive responses can be followed up with further screenings, examinations, or referrals to facilitate appropriate intervention. These detection aids vary by profession and often require training prior to implementation.
While there are a number of screening instruments available to assist practitioners, currently there is no gold standard.
Tools vary in their format, length, and focus. Although some have shown promise, they may not be sufficiently broad to offer comprehensive detection of multiple forms of abuse. Additional research is needed to assess mistreatment and validate tools in different contexts, over different cultures and risk groups, and across professional disciplines.
General discussions and systematic reviews of elder abuse screening instruments are available.
The following tools have been identified for use by Adult Protective Services and other caseworkers in the field of aging:
A number of strategies have been identified to aid the prevention and response to elder mistreatment. They range from interpersonal and community-based supports, to restorative and criminal justice remedies. Multidisciplinary teams represent another model of intervention developed to respond to the needs of older adults who have experienced abuse. Professional provider education and public awareness, as well, are established and growing efforts to bolster primary prevention. These models are addressed in greater detail below.
Studies have recommended implementation of harm reduction response interventions that align with the older adult’s preferred case resolution. Goal attainment scaling has been proposed as an approach tailored to meet the older adult’s individual needs. Using this model, each older person determines their own desired outcome or goal from a stated intervention.
Another model suggests a severity framework to guide person-centered outcome measures. This construct shifts the focus from binary remedies to nuanced interventions which consider the complexity, variability, and spectrum of mistreatment. This person-centric approach is tailored to the victim’s circumstances, needs, presenting harm, risk of recurrence, and contextual considerations.
Other models have contemplated comprehensive approaches to intervention that go beyond victim-directed responses to holistically embrace the victim’s relationship with the offender, the context of abuse, and the home environment.
Leading researchers in the field agree that high quality research is a requisite to evaluate and affirm best practice strategies to address elder mistreatment.
Low social support is one of the most common risk factors for abuse across types.
Conversely, the presence of a social network may act as a protective influence to help prevent abuse. Available social resources may also mitigate adverse outcomes such as poor health and diminished mental health in the aftermath of mistreatment.
The degree and tenor of social interactions have been found to impact an older adult’s perceived social support and susceptibility to abuse. Negative exchanges may lower the level of apparent support or contribute to an environment more conducive to perpetrator misconduct.
Social reserves may be drawn from informal family, friend, and faith networks. Formal supports include institutional response systems such as law enforcement, Adult Protective Services, and the Long-term Care Ombudsman, addressed below. They also embrace formal health services such as homecare and community-based programs.
Several community-based response models have been advanced to prevent and respond to elder mistreatment. Among them, Age-friendly Health Systems (AFHS) suggests a construct for screening older adults for abuse across health care settings. AFHS uses the 4M framework, namely, What Matters, Medication, Mentation, and Mobility in primary care, emergency departments, and long-term care facilities to detect and respond to suspected abuse.
Adult Protective Services (APS) is the most widely used intervention to address elder mistreatment and neglect. This social services agency is charged with investigating allegations of abuse and neglect and facilitating appropriate remedies. Interventions may embrace referrals to law enforcement and result in criminal prosecution. APS may make recommendations for protective elder abuse retraining orders or guardianships. Caseworkers may also suggest and help implement restorative resolutions.
APS arose out of Title XX of the Social Security Act of 1974, which provided federal funding to states to develop APS programs. In response, each state developed its own APS organization and infrastructure.
Current APS systems are separately funded and administered by state and local governments. To date, no dedicated federal funds have been directly distributed to state APS agencies.
Programs differ among states and between counties as to client eligibility and available resources. A California study evaluating APS investigations across county jurisdictions reported significant variability in findings.
To better ensure consistent APS policies and practices nationwide, a working group of experts developed the Voluntary Consensus Guidelines for State APS Systems to provide a framework for state APS rules and laws. The guidelines address domains of program administration, response times, reports, investigations, interventions, training, and program evaluation.
The National Adult Maltreatment Reporting System (NAMRS) collects quantitative and qualitative data on APS practices and policies and the outcomes of investigations, as reported to APS agencies.
All states, except New York, require statutorily specified professionals to report incidents of suspected elder abuse to reporting agencies, including APS. Mandatory reporters may include healthcare professionals, social service providers, caregivers, clergy, financial institutions, among others. The list of mandated reporters as defined by state statute can be accessed
Generally, individuals who have experienced abuse must consent to APS services and interventions. Older people with decisional capacity may decline APS assistance. Under certain circumstances, APS may render involuntary protective assistance to individuals who lack capacity or when the exigencies of the situation require intervention. A screening tool has been developed to assess the decisional capacity of abused and neglected older adults.
Studies have been conducted to evaluate older adults’ utilization of APS services,
and measure older adults’ satisfaction with APS services and investigations.
and means to measure person-centered case resolutions.
Like APS efforts in the community, long-term care ombudsmen investigate allegations of abuse in facilities. Ombudsmen serve as advocates who act at the behest of residents to help resolve complaints, protect their rights, and improve systemic problems in long-term care.
The Long-term Care Ombudsman Program was authorized in 1978 under the Older Americans Act to establish a consumer advocacy program intended to maintain or improve the quality of life for long-term care residents. Administered at the state level, programs employ both paid and volunteer ombudsmen to investigate complaints.
Data regarding program activities, including facility visits, complaints, information and assistance provided, and community education are reported in the National Ombudsman Reporting System (NORS), which is housed on the Administration for Community Living’s website. Additional data is available through the AGing, Independence, and Disability (AGID) Program Data Portal. Both NORS and AGID Reports are publicly accessible.
Cases of elder abuse are often complex and multifactorial, invoking several different and disparate domains of practice. A single case may intersect social service, health care, law enforcement, and civil legal disciplines. Multidisciplinary teams (MDT) provide regular, coordinated elder mistreatment case review across practice areas. Integrated case review is associated with greater interagency collaboration, intended to enhance the efficient delivery of remedial assistance to older victims of abuse.
Team characteristics, program structures, resources, constituent members, and processes differ by team.
MDT’s typically have a geriatric health, social service, mental health, law enforcement, victim advocate, and prosecutorial presence.
More recently, some MDTs have added forensic accountants to their teams.
One type of MDT, the elder abuse forensic center (FC), applies forensic science to address complicated cases of abuse.
FC’s often support the efforts of frontline workers and include conducting home visits to assess older adult’s medical and mental health capacities.
MDTs continue to replicate across urban and rural areas across the country.
As a response to elder mistreatment, MDTs have demonstrated promise as an effective intervention.
As teams grow, researchers have suggested that the field develop a coordinated, uniform data collection strategy to advance best practices.
Community awareness campaigns continue to be an important approach to enhance understanding of aging and elder abuse. World Elder Abuse Awareness Day (WEEAD), celebrated across the United States and internationally since 2006, continues to be an annual platform for global awareness, recognition, and engagement.
By increasing recognition of the issues, awareness and educational platforms may help recast public perceptions of older people and shift behaviors of aging.
The Reframing Aging and Reframing Elder Abuse initiatives have developed evidence-based communication strategies to increase public awareness and promulgate systemic solutions to prevent and address elder abuse.
In collaboration with the Frameworks Institute, the NCEA created a public communications strategy recontextualizing elder abuse as a social justice imperative. Access this
Educational programs have also been identified as an intervention. Older people can receive instruction in understanding the risks factors associated with mistreatment and the availability of helping agencies and resources.
For example, the Keep Control campaign in Dublin, Ireland is a strengths-based intervention which empowers older adults to protect themselves from financial abuse.
Middle school students to undergraduates have been found to benefit from classroom education on aging and ageism.
Intergenerational programs have also been identified to increase awareness and reduce age bias and discrimination.
and art activities.
Professional provider instruction and training in the signs and symptoms of elder mistreatment is an essential intervention. Healthcare providers are often best positioned to detect mistreatment, report abuse, and identify helping resources. In addition to medical and mental health clinicians, educating other mandatory reporters, as designated by state statute, is a key component to prevention and early identification of abuse. For additional information, see Interdisciplinary Professions and Elder Abuse above.
Diminished financial management abilities and reduced cognitive function have been identified among the risk factors that predispose older adults to financial exploitation. Evidence-based approaches such as the Success After Financial Exploitation (SAFE) program, developed by the Lifespan Fraud and Scams Prevention program in Rochester, New York, educate and coach older adults on finances and money management. They also provide information on fraud and scams to professionals who work with older people.
In addition to providing education, elder financial programs may help older adults respond to consequential financial hardships in the wake of exploitation.
As noted above, cases of elder abuse are often complex and multilayered. Traditional interventions, such as criminal justice and social service remedies, may not be the preferred resolution for older adults at the center of conflict. More recently, as person-centered outcomes have risen to the fore, restorative justice approaches have gained increased currency.
Researchers have found that restorative processes have the potential to prevent social isolation, a predictor of abuse, and serve as an alternative remedy for abuse.
Specifically, researchers have drawn attention to restorative processes to educate offenders on harmful behaviors, mitigate social isolation, heal relationship rifts, and support overwhelmed caregivers.
Recent articles have addressed the application of trauma-informed care principles to older people who have experienced abuse in later life and compounding harms across the lifespan. This holistic, conceptual framework recognizes the collective neurological, biological, psychological, and socio-cultural impacts of trauma and the weight that burden places on individuals, families, and communities. A trauma-informed approach incorporates the six principles of safety, trust, peer support and self-help, collaboration, empowerment, voice, and choice. With these principles in mind, trauma-informed services integrate person-centered care and tailored services to empower elders, improve the community response, and reduce the risk of revictimization.
Another client-centered, restorative practice that has emerged is the Service Advocate Model. This approach developed as an extension of forensic center services. Working within the forensic center, the Service Advocate provides case management, crisis intervention, and supportive services to forensic center clients. The Advocate promotes client wellbeing and self-efficacy, while balancing their preferences and protective interests. The Service Advocate may also offer resources and services to the offender to promote safety and wellbeing within the caregiver/client dyad.
Elder mediation is a community-based, voluntary intervention that has been utilized to help older adults and their family members resolve conflict.
It is a specialized form of dispute resolution that addresses conflicts arising within the context of aging and elder issues. Typically, a neutral, impartial mediator assists parties to collaboratively arrive at mutual agreement using an interests-based, solutions-oriented approach. The focus is generally client-centered, with an emphasis on preserving elder rights, preferences, and needs. Education, care planning, and resource dissemination may be part of the recommended resolution. Studies have found that mediation may be an effective strategy to prevent or end financial abuse.
Elder shelters, such as the prototype Weinberg Center for Elder Justice in New York, provide a safe haven and resources to older adults who have been abused. Beyond providing a home, medical care, and provisions, shelters can be a hub for a coordinated, interdisciplinary community response to abuse.
Advocates help residents access their legal rights and available remedies in the aftermath of trauma.
Since the passage of the Elder Justice Act in 2010, the elder justice movement has gained traction, but federal recognition and funding have only begun to address the prevailing and mounting need to prevent elder mistreatment and address consequential harms. Several recent articles discuss the present and future of elder justice.
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